1. Guilhem Olivier, Mockeries and Metamorphoses of an Aztec God: Tezcatlipoca, “Lord of the Smoking Mirror” (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 2003), 251. See also Bernardino de Sahagún, The Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Books 1–12, 13 vols. Trans. and ed. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1950–1982).
2. Antonio Gramsci, Quaderni del carcere, vol. 3 (Turin: Einaudi, 1977), 1516.
3. See, for instance, Elizabeth H. Boone, Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007); and Javier Urcid, Zapotec Hieroglyphic Writing. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art & Archaeology, Number 34 (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2001).
4. See María Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, History of the Inca Realm (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Susan Elizabeth Ramírez, To Feed and Be Fed: The Cosmological Bases of Authority and Identity in the Andes (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005); and Claudia Brosseder, The Power of Huacas: Change and Resistance in the Andean World of Colonial Peru (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014).
5. For a glyph catalog, see Martha Macri and Matthew G. Looper, The New Catalog of Maya Hieroglyphs: The Classic Period Inscriptions (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003).
6. Elizabeth H. Boone, Stories in Red and Black: Pictorial Histories of the Aztecs and Mixtecs (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000); see also Elizabeth H. Boone and Walter Mignolo, Writing Without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994); Frank Salomon, The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004); see also Special Issue: “Graphic Pluralism,” Ethnohistory 57, no. 1 (2010), edited by Sabine Hyland and Frank Salomon.
7. Gary Urton, Inka History in Knots. Reading Khipus as Primary Sources (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2017); for recent discoveries, see Sabine Hyland, “Writing with Twisted Cords: The Inscriptive Capacity of Andean Khipus,” Current Anthropology 58, no. 3 (2017): 412–419; Thomas B. F. Cummins, Toasts with the Inca: Andean Abstraction and Colonial Images on Kero Vessels (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002); and Cummins, “Tocapu: What Is It, What Does It Do, and Why Is It Not a Knot?,” in Their Way of Writing: Scripts, Signs, and Pictographies in Pre-Columbian America, ed. Elizabeth Hill Boone and Gary Urton (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2011), 277–317.
8. Amatlacuilo is “paper painter/writer,” huezée quíchi is “maker of paper,” and huecàa yye, “one who sticks on/places signs.” Juan de Córdova, Vocabulario en lengua çapoteca (Mexico City: Pedro Ocharte, Antonio Ricardo, 1578), 182v; Amapohuani is “paper recounter”; péni huelàba yye, “reader or reciter of images.” Córdova, Vocabulario, 241v.; Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 10, 191.
9. An important example is Diego de Landa’s activities in Yucatan in 1562; see France V. Scholes and Ralph Roys, Fray Diego de Landa and the Problem of Idolatry in Yucatán (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1938); and John F. Chuchiak, “In Servitio Dei: Fray Diego de Landa, The Franciscan Order, and the Return of the Extirpation of Idolatry in the Colonial Diocese of Yucatán, 1573–1579,” The Americas 61, no. 4 (2005): 611–646.
10. Diego Valadés, Rhetorica Christiana (Perugia: Petrumiacobum Petrutium, 1579), 227; Motolinia [Toribio Benavente], Historia de los indios de la Nueva España (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1990 [1858]), 2.
11. On Franciscan millenarianism, see John Leddy Phelan, The Milennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970); for Erasmus’s influence, see Marcel Bataillon, Erasmo y España: estudios sobre la historia espiritual del siglo XVI, 2 vols. (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1950).
12. Francisco Morales, “New World Colonial Franciscan Mystical Practice,” in A New Companion to Hispanic Mysticism, ed. Hilaire Kallendorf (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010), 95–97.
13. Richard Greenleaf, ed., Zumárraga and his Family: Letters to Vizcaya, 1536–1548 (Washington, DC: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1979), 122–128, see citation and discussion in Aysha Pollnitz, “Old Words and the New World: Liberal Education and the Franciscans in New Spain,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 27 (2017): 123–152. See also Richard E. Greenleaf, Zumárraga and the Mexican Inquisition, 1536–1543 (Washington, DC: Academy of American Franciscan History, 1962).
14. Miguel Mathes, Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco: la primera biblioteca académica de las Américas (Mexico City: Archivo Histórico Diplomático Mexicano 12, cuarta época, Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, 1982); and Pollnitz, “Old Words.”
15. Louise Burkhart, Holy Wednesday: A Nahua Drama from Early Colonial Mexico (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 57–64. See also Rocío Cortés, “The Colegio Imperial De Santa Cruz De Tlatelolco and Its Aftermath: Nahua Intellectuals and the Spiritual Conquest of Mexico,” in A Companion to Latin American Literature and Culture, ed. Sarah Castro-Klaren (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008), 86–105. SilverMoon, “The Imperial College of Tlatelolco and the Emergence of a New Nahua Intellectual Elite in New Spain (1500–1760)” (PhD diss., Duke University, 2007); and José María Kobayashi, La educación como conquista: Empresa franciscana en México (Mexico City: Colegio de México, 1974).
16. Martín de la Cruz and Juan Badiano, The Badianus Manuscript (Codex Barberini, Latin 241) Vatican Library: An Aztec Herbal of 1552 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940); and Martín de la Cruz, Libellus de medicinalibus indorum herbis. Manuscrito azteca de 1552 según traducción latina de Juan Badiano (Mexico City: Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, 1961).
17. Juan Bautista Viseo, Sermonario en lengua mexicana (Mexico City: Diego Lopez Daualos, 1606), vii r–ix v.
18. Burkhart, Holy Wednesday, 72.
19. Lluís Nicolau d’Olwer, Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, 1499–1590 (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1977), 33, 36, 40; see also Burkhart, Holy Wednesday, 66.
20. Kevin Terraciano, “Three Texts in One: Book XII of the Florentine Codex,” Ethnohistory 57, no.1 (2010): 51–72; for another example of interplay between text and image, see Terraciano, “Parallel Nahuatl and Pictorial Texts in the Mixtec Codex Sierra Texupan,” Ethnohistory 62, no. 3 (2015): 497–524.
21. For Nahua Latinists and humanists, see Ignacio Osorio Romero, La enseñanza del latín a los indios (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1990); Emma Pérez-Rocha and Rafael Tena, eds., La nobleza indígena del centro de México después de la conquista (Mexico City: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, 2000), 218, 222; Andrew Laird, “Teaching of Latin to the Native Nobility in Mexico in the Mid-1500s: Contexts, Methods, and Results,” in Learning Latin and Greek from Antiquity to the Present, ed. Elisabeth P. Archibald, William Brockliss, and Jonathan Gnoza (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 118–135; “Nahuas and Caesars: Classical Learning and Bilingualism in Post-Conquest Mexico; An Inventory of Latin Writings by Authors of the Native Nobility,” Classical Philology 109 (2014): 150–169; “Nahua Humanism and Political Identity in Sixteenth-Century Mexico,” Renaessanceforum, 10 (2016): 127–172; Laird, “From the Epistolae et Evangelia (c. 1540) to the Espejo divino (1607): Indian Latinists and Nahuatl religious literature at the College of Tlatelolco,” Journal of Latin Cosmopolitanism and European Literature (2018); and Heréndira Téllez Nieto, Heréndira, “La tradición textual latina de la Fábulas de Esopo en lengua náhuatl,” Latomus 74, no. 3 (2015): 715–734; Serge Gruzinski, The Mestizo Mind: The Intellectual Dynamics of Colonization and Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2002), 94.
22. See Berenice Alcántara, “Evangelización y traducción. La Vida de san Francisco de san Buenaventura vuelta al náhuatl por fray Alonso de Molina,” Estudios de cultura náhuatl 46 (2013): 89–158.
23. David Tavárez, “Nahua Intellectuals, Franciscan Scholars, and the devotio moderna in Colonial Mexico,” The Americas 70, no. 2 (2013): 203–235.
24. Louise Burkhart, The Slippery Earth: Nahua-Christian Moral Dialogue in Sixteenth-Century Mexico (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1989).
25. Martin Nesvig, Ideology and Inquisition: The World of the Censors in Early Mexico (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009), 153–157; see also his “The Epistemological Politics of Vernacular Scripture in Sixteenth-Century Mexico,” The Americas 70 (2013): 165–201.
26. Agustín de Vetancurt, Teatro mexicano (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, [1698] 1982), 150.
27. David Tavárez, “A Banned Sixteenth-Century Biblical Text in Nahuatl: The Proverbs of Solomon,” Ethnohistory 60, no. 4 (2013): 759–762.
28. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Fonds Mexicain 410. See Amoxcalli.
29. Barry Sell, “‘Perhaps our Lord, God, Has Forgotten Me’: Intruding into the Colonial Nahua (Aztec) Confessional,” in The Conquest All Over Again: Nahuas and Zapotecs Thinking, Writing, and Painting Spanish Colonialism, ed. Susan Schroeder (Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press, 2010), 191, 202.
30. Dominique Julia, “Lectures et Contre-Reforme,” in Histoire de la lecture dans le monde occidental, ed. Guglielmo Cavallo and Roger Chartier (Paris: Seuil, 2001).
31. Kelly S. McDonough “Indigenous Intellectuals in Early Colonial Mexico: The Case of Antonio del Rincón, Nahua Grammarian and Priest,” Colonial Latin American Review, 20 (2011): 145–165.
32. Luis Reyes García, ed. and trans., ¿Cómo te confundes? ¿Acaso no somos conquistados? Anales de Juan Bautista (Mexico City: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Biblioteca Lorenzo Boturini, Basílica de Guadalupe, 2002).
33. John Carter Brown Library, Codex Indianorum 7; see Louise Burkhart, “The Voyage of Saint Amaro: A Spanish legend in Nahuatl Literature,” Colonial Latin American Review 4 (1995): 29–57; and Justyna Olko, “The Nahua Story of Judas. Indigenous Agency and Loci of Meaning,” in Words and Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America, ed. David Tavárez (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2017), 150–171; Alfredo López Austin, “Un repertorio de los tiempos en idioma náhuatl,” Anales de Antropología 10: 285–96 (1973); Susan Spitler, “Nahua Intellectual Responses to the Spanish: The Incorporation of European Ideas into the Central Mexican Calendar” (PhD dissertation, Tulane University, 2005); Søren Wichmann and Ilona Heijnen, “Un manuscrito en náhuatl sobre astrología europea,” in XV Congreso Internacional de AHILA, 1808-2008: Crisis y Problemas en el Mundo Atlántico, ed. Raymond Buve, Neeske Ruitenbeek, and Marianne Wiesebron (Leiden: Leiden University, 2008); David Tavárez, The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), 133–139; and Lori Boornazian Diel, The Codex Mexicanus: A Guide to Life in Sixteenth-Century New Spain (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018).
34. Nadine Béligand, “Lecture indienne et chrétienté: La bibliothèque d’un alguacil de doctrina en Nouvelle-Espagne au XVI siècle,” Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez 31 (1995), 21–71; Kevin Terraciano, The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001), 284, 464.
35. See, for instance, Frances Karttunen and James Lockhart, “La estructura de la poesía náhuatl vista por sus variantes,” Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl, 14 (1980): 15–65; John Bierhost, Cantares Mexicanos: Songs of the Aztecs (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985); Miguel León-Portilla, ed., Cantares mexicanos, 2 vols. (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Fideicomiso Teixidor, 2011); Gary Tomlinson, The Singing of the New World: Indigenous Voice in the Era of European Contact (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007); and John Bierhorst, Ballads of the Lords of New Spain: The Codex Romances de los Señores de la Nueva España (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010).
36. Luis Enrique Sam Colop, Popol Wuj/Popol Vuh (Guatemala City: F & G Editores, 2011); Dennis Tedlock, Popol Vuh: The Mayan Book of the Dawn of Life (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1996); and Allen J. Christenson, trans., Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007).
37. Sabine MacCormack, “Grammar and Virtue: The Formulation of a Cultural and Missionary Program by the Jesuits in Early Colonial Peru,” in The Jesuits II: Cultures, Sciences, and the Arts, ed. John W. O’Malley, Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Steven J. Harris, and T. Frank Kennedy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006), 576–601.
38. Luis Martín, The Intellectual Conquest of Peru: The Jesuit College of San Pablo, 1568–1767 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1968), 50.
39. Karen Spalding, Huarochirí: An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1984); and Gerald Taylor, Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochirí (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 1987).
40. Alan Durston, “Notes on the Authorship of the Huarochirí Manuscript,” Colonial Latin American Review 16, no. 2 (2007): 227–241.
41. Frank Salomon and George Urioste, The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991).
42. Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, ed. John V. Murra and Rolena Adorno, trans. Jorge L. Urioste [1980], (Online eds. Rolena Adorno and Ivan Boserup, 2004 [1615]). See also Rolena Adorno, Guaman Poma: Writing and Resistance in Colonial Peru, 2nd ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000); Sabine MacCormack, Religion in the Andes: Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Irene Silverblatt, Modern Inquisitions: Peru and the Colonial Origins of the Civilized World (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004).
43. MacCormack, Religion, 320–328.
44. James Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), 376–392; and Camilla Townsend, Annals of Native America: How the Nahuas of Colonial Mexico Kept Their History Alive (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
45. Susan Schroeder, Chimalpahin and the Kingdoms of Chalco (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991), 7–26.
46. Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin, don Domingo de San Antón Muñón, Las ocho relaciones y El memorial de Colhuacan, ed. and trans. Rafael Tena, 2 vols. (Mexico City: CONCA, 1998).
47. Susan Schroeder, “The Truth about the Crónica Mexicayotl,” Colonial Latin American Review 20, no. 2 (2011): 233–247; see also Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Crónica mexicayotl, trans. Adrián León (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1992); Chimalpahin, Codex Chimalpahin: Society and politics in Mexico Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, Texcoco, Culhuacan, and other Nahua Altepetl in Central Mexico, eds. and trans. Arthur J. O. Anderson and Susan Schroeder, 2 vols. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997).
48. Chimalpahin, Diario, trans. Rafael Tena (México: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 2001); and Annals of His Time, eds. and trans. James Lockhart, Susan Schroeder, and Doris Namala (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2006).
49. Susan Schroeder, Anne J. Cruz, Cristián Roa-de-la-Carrera, and David Tavárez, eds. Chimalpahin’s Conquest: A Nahua Historian’s Rewriting of Francisco López de Gómara’s La conquista de México (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010).
50. Juan Buenaventura Zapata y Mendoza, Historia cronológica de la Noble Ciudad de Tlaxcala, eds. Luis Reyes García and Andrea Martínez Baracs (Tlaxcala: Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, 1995); Camilla Townsend, “Don Juan Zapata y Mendoza and the Notion of a Nahua Identity,” in The Conquest All Over Again: Nahuas and Zapotecs Thinking, Writing and Painting Spanish Colonialism (Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2010), 144–180; and Kelly McDonough, The Learned Ones: Nahua Intellectuals in Postconquest Mexico (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2014), 63–82. For Nahuatl-language writers in Guatemala, see Laura Matthew and Sergio Romero, “Nahuatl and Pipil in Colonial Guatemala: A Central American Counterpoint,” Ethnohistory 59, no. 4(2012): 765–783; Sergio Romero, ”Grammar, Dialectal Variation and Honorific Registers in Nahuatl in Seventeenth-Century Guatemala,” Anthropological Linguistics 56, no. 1 (2015): 1–24. For K’iche’ testaments, see Owen Jones, “Language Politics and Indigenous Language Documents: Evidence in Colonial K’ichee’ Litigation in Seventeenth Century Highland Guatemala,” The Americas 73, no. 3 (2016): 349–370. For late colonial Nahua notaries, see Caterina Pizzigoni, The Life Within: Local Indigenous Society in Mexico’s Toluca Valley, 1650–1800 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012); and Miriam Melton-Villanueva, The Aztecs at Independence: Nahua Culture Makers in Central Mexico, 1799–1832 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016); for a selection of colonial indigenous testaments written in Amerindian languages and Spanish, see Mark Z. Christensen and Jonathan Truitt, eds., Native Wills From the Colonial Americas: Dead Giveaways in a New World (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2015).
51. Barry Sell and Louise Burkhart, Nahuatl Theater, Volume I: Death and Life in Colonial Nahua Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004); Danièle Dehouve, Relatos de pecados en la evangelización de los indios de México, siglos XVI–XVIII (Mexico City: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Centro de Estudios Mexicanos y Centroamericanos, 2010).
52. Judith M. Maxwell and Robert M. Hill, II, trans. and eds., Kaqchikel Chronicles: The Definitive Edition (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006).
53. José Carlos de la Puente Luna, “The Many Tongues of the King: Indigenous Language Interpreters and the Making of the Spanish Empire,” Colonial Latin American Review 23, no. 2 (2014): 143–170; and Mark Lentz, “Castas, Creoles, and the Rise of a Maya Lingua Franca in Eighteenth-Century Yucatan,” Hispanic American Historical Review 97, no. 1 (2017): 29–61.
54. Juan Bautista de Pomar, Relación de Texcoco. Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI, ed. René Acuña (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1986); and Diego Muñoz Camargo, Historia de Tlaxcala: Ms. 210 de la Biblioteca Nacional de París (Tlaxcala: Gobierno del Estado de Tlaxcala, Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, 1998).
55. Federico Navarrete, “Chimalpain y Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, dos estrategias de traducción cultural,” in Indios, mestizos, y españoles: interculturalidad e historiografía en la Nueva España, eds. Danna Levin Rojo and Federico Navarrete (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2007); and Galen Brokaw and Jongsoo Lee, eds., Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl and His Legacy (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2016).
56. Amber Brian, Alva Ixtlilxochitl’s Native Archive and the Circulation of Knowledge in Colonial Mexico (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2016), 29, 96–97; Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Obras históricas, ed. Edmundo O’Gorman, 2 vols (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1975); and Amber Brian, Bradley Benton, Pablo García Loaeza, and Peter Villella, eds. and trans., History of the Chichimeca Nation: Don Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl’s Chronicle of Ancient Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2018).
57. Bartolomé de Alva, A Guide to Confession Large and Small in the Mexican Language, 1634, eds. and trans. Barry D. Sell and John F. Schwaller, with Lu Ann Homza (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999).
58. Louise Burkhart, “Nahuatl Baroque. How Alva Mexicanized the Spanish Dramas,” in Nahuatl Theater: Spanish Golden Age Drama in Mexican Translation, eds. and trans. Barry D. Sell, Louise M. Burkhart, Elizabeth R. Wright (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008), 36–39.
59. MacCormack, Religion, 330–351; and Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios reales de los incas, 2 vols., ed. Carlos Araníbar (Lima: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1991).
60. Rostworowski, History, 30–34.
61. Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón, Tratado de las supersticiones y costumbres gentílicas que oy viuen entre los indios naturales desta Nueva España (Anales del Museo Nacional de México Primera época, 1892) 6: 125–223; Treatise on the Heathen Institutions that Today Live Among the Indians Native to this New Spain (1629), ed. and trans. J. Richard Andrews and Ross Hassig (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984); and Michael Coe and Richard Whittaker, Aztec Sorcerers in Seventeenth-Century Mexico (Albany: Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, SUNY-Albany, 1982).
62. David Tavárez, The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011), 76, 81–87.
63. Heinrich Berlin Neubart, Idolatría y supersticion entre los indios de Oaxaca (Mexico City: Ediciones Toledo, 1988).
64. Tavárez, Invisible War, 194–206; John Justeson and David Tavárez, “The correlation of the colonial Northern Zapotec calendar with European chronology,” in Skywatching in the Ancient World: New Perspectives in Cultural Astronomy Studies in Honor of Anthony F. Aveni, ed. Clive Ruggles and Gary Urton (Niwot: University Press of Colorado), 17–81; and Tavárez, “Los cantos zapotecos de Villa Alta: Dos géneros rituales indígenas y sus correspondencias con los Cantares Mexicanos,” Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl 39 (2009): 87–126.
65. Alfredo Barrera Vázquez, trans., El libro de los libros de Chilam Balam (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1969); Munro Edmonson, trans., The Ancient Future of the Itza: The Book of Chilam Balam of Tizimin (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982), and Heaven-born Merida and its Destiny: The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986); Alfredo Barrera Vázquez, trans. El libro de los Cantares de Dzitbalché (Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1965); Martha Nájera Coronado, Los Cantares de Dzitbalché en la tradición religiosa mesoamericana (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2007); Ramón Arzápalo, trans., El ritual del los bacabes (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1987); John F. Chuchiak, “Writing as Resistance: Maya Graphic Pluralism and Indigenous Elite Strategies for Survival in Colonial Yucatán, 1550–1750,” Ethnohistory 57, no. 1(2010): 87–116; Sergio Quezada, Maya Lords and Lordship: The Formation of Colonial Society, 1350–1600 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014); William F. Hanks, Converting Words: Maya in the Age of the Cross (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010); Mark Z. Christensen, Nahua and Maya Catholicisms: Texts and Religion in Colonial Central Mexico and Yucatan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press and Academy of American Franciscan History, 2013), and The Teabo Manuscript: Maya Christian Copybooks, Chilam Balams, and Native Text Production in Yucatán (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2016).
66. Barry Sell, Louise Burkhart, and Stafford Poole, trans. Nahuatl Theater, Volume 2: Our Lady of Guadalupe (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006); Barry Sell, Louise Burkhart, trans. Nahuatl Theater, Volume 4: Nahua Christianity in Performance (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009); for popular religious observances and images, see William B. Taylor, Shrines and Miraculous Images: Religious Life in Mexico before the Reforma (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2010); Juan de Espinosa Medrano, El robo de Proserpina y sueño de Endimión. Auto sacramental en quechua, ed. César Itier (Lima: Institut Français d’Études Andines, 2010); and Teodoro Meneses, ed., Teatro quechua colonial. Antología (Lima: Ediciones Edubanco, 1983).
67. Cândida Drumond Mendes Barros, “A relação entre manuscritos e impressos em Tupi como forma de estudo da política lingüística no século XVIII na Amazônia,” Anais do 5º Encontro do Celsul (2003): 76–90; Leonardo Cerno and Franz Obermeier, “Cartas de indígenas potiguaras de las guerras holandesas en el Brasil (1645–1646),” Corpus 3, no. 1 (2013): 2–5; and Kittiya Lee, “Cannibal Theologies in Colonial Portuguese America (1549–1759): Translating the Christian Eucharist as the Tupinambá Pledge of Vengeance,” Journal of Early Modern History 21, no. 1–2 (2017): 64–90. I thank Kittiya Lee for providing me with the first two references.
68. Stephanie Wood, Transcending Conquest: Nahua Views of Spanish Colonial Mexico (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003); Elizabeth H. Boone, Louise Burkhart, and David Tavárez, Painted Words: Nahua Catholicism, Politics, and Memory in the Atzaqualco Pictorial Catechism (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2017); and Bérénice Gaillemin, “Images mémorables pour un texte immuable. Les catéchismes pictographiques testériens (Mexique, XVIe-XIXe),” Gradhiva 13 (2011): 204–225; María de los Ángeles Romero Frizzi and Juana Vásquez Vásquez, “Memoria y escritura: La memoria de Juquila,” in Escritura zapoteca. 2,500 años de historia, ed. María de los Ángeles Romero Frizzi (Mexico City: Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios en Antropología Social, INAH, Porrúa, CONACULTA, 2003), 393–448.
69. Margarita Menegus Bornemann and Rodolfo Aguirre Salvador, Los indios, el sacerdocio, y la universidad en Nueva España, siglos XVI–XVIII (Mexico City: Plaza y Valdés, 2006); and Margarita Menegus Bornemann, “El Colegio de San Carlos Borromeo: Un proyecto para la creación de un clero indígena en el siglo XVII,” in Saber y poder en México, siglos XVI al XX, ed. Margarita Menegus Bornemann (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1997), 197–243.
70. Peter Villella, Indigenous Elites and Creole Identity in Colonial Mexico, 1500–1800 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); for Creole historiography, see Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra, How to Write the History of the New World: Histories, Epistemologies, and Identities in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001).
71. Alcira Dueñas, “Ethnic Power and Identity Formation in Mid-Colonial Andean Writing,” Colonial Latin American Review 18, no. 3 (2009): 407–433.
72. See Cañizares-Esguerra, How to Write; Brian, Alva Ixtlilxochitl’s Native Archive; and Lorenzo Boturini Benaduci, Idea of a New General History of North America: An Account of Colonial Native Mexico, trans. Stafford Poole (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015).
73. Enrique Florescano, Memory, Myth, and Time in Mexico: From the Aztecs to Independence (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994); and Mauricio Tenorio, Mexico at the World’s Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). Some of the first critical editions appeared in the late 19th century; see Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, Obras históricas, 2 vols (Mexico City: Oficina tipográfica del Secretario de Fomento, 1892); and Ruiz de Alarcón, Tratado (1892). For the development of these narratives in 20th-century Peru, see Marisol de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919–1991 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000).
74. Angel María Garibay K., Historia de la literatura náhuatl (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1954); Miguel León-Portilla, La filosofía náhuatl estudiada en sus fuentes (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1956); Alfredo López Austin, “Términos del nahuallatolli,” Historia Mexicana 17 (1967): 1–36, and Hombre-dios: Religión y política en el mundo náhuatl (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1973); and Chimalpahin, Relaciones originales de Chalco Amaquemecan, ed. and trans. Silvia Rendón (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1965).
75. Jongsoo Lee, The Allure of Nezahualcoyotl: Pre-Hispanic History, Religion, and Nahua Poetics (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008).
76. An inaugural text for New Philology efforts was Frances Karttunen and James Lockhart, Nahuatl in the Middle Years: Language Contact Phenomena in Texts of the Colonial Period (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Obras (1975); Bierhorst, Cantares Mexicanos; Fernando Horcasitas, El teatro náhuatl: Épocas novohispana y moderna: Primera parte (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1974); and Taylor, Ritos y tradiciones; Kobayashi, La educación; Mathes, Santa Cruz; and Lino Gómez Canedo, La educación de los marginados durante la época colonial: escuelas y colegios para índios y mestizos en la Nueva España (Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1982).
77. Burkhart, The Slippery Earth; Schroeder, Chimalpahin; Zapata y Mendoza, Historia; Salomon and Urioste, The Huarochirí Manuscript; Adorno, Guaman Poma; MacCormack, Religion in the Andes; Edmonson, Heaven-born Merida; and Susan Kellogg, Law and the Transformation of Aztec Culture, 1500–1700 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995).
78. Horacio Carochi, Grammar of the Mexican Language: With an Explanation of Its Adverbs (1645), ed. and trans. James Lockhart (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002); Chimalpahin, Las ocho relaciones; Codex Chimalpahin; Annals of His Time; Chimalpahin’s Conquest; and Guaman Poma, El primer nueva corónica (2004 [1615]); Jesús Bustamante and Mónica Quijada, eds., Élites intelectuales y modelos colectivos en el mundo ibérico, siglos XVI–XIX (Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2002); Gabriela Ramos and Yanna Yannakakis, eds., Indigenous Intellectuals: Knowledge, Power, and Colonial Culture in Mexico and the Andes (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014); David Tavárez, ed., Words and Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America (Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 2017); and Alan Durston and Bruce Mannheim, eds., Indigenous Languages, Politics, and Authority in Latin America: Historical and Ethnographic Perspectives(Terre Haute, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2018); Joanne Rappaport and Thomas B. F. Cummins, Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Andes (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2012); and Lisbeth Haas, Pablo Tac: Indigenous Scholar (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
79. Laird, “Nahuas and Caesars,” and “Nahua Humanism;” Pérez Rocha and Tena, La nobleza; Pollnitz, “Old Words;” and Tavárez, “Nahua Intellectuals.”
FAQs
What important problem do the indigenous peoples of Latin America have? ›
Despite important advances over the first decade of this millenium, Indigenous Peoples in the Latin America region are disproportionately affected by poverty, and continue to face widespread economic and social exclusion.
What happened to some of the indigenous people in Latin America? ›Latin America's indigenous population was reduced by 95 percent over 300 years through diseases spread by colonizers.
What are the 3 main indigenous cultures when Europeans arrive in Latin America? ›The Maya, the Aztecs, and the Incan Empire: The history of Latin America long predates the arrival of the Europeans.
What are indigenous people called in Latin America? ›The term aborigen (lit. aborigine) is used in Argentina and pueblos aborígenes (lit. aboriginal peoples) is commonly used in Colombia. The English term "Amerindian" (short for "Indians of the Americas") is often used in the Guianas.
Which country has the most indigenous population in Latin America? ›Share of indigenous people in selected Latin American countries as of 2021
Spanish conquistadors and other colonizers usurped indigenous cultural and political institutions to obtain wealth, status, and glory. This pursuit of power dehumanized indigenous people and destroyed societies that predated Spanish arrival.
How many indigenous people were killed in the colonization of America? ›But with the arrival of the first European settlers, waves of new diseases, along with warfare, slavery and other brutality would kill off around 56 million people, or around 90 percent of the indigenous population.
Who are most Mexicans descended from? ›The majority of Mexicans have varying degrees of Spanish and Mesoamerican ancestry and have been classified as "Mestizos".
What country has the most indigenous people? ›Indigenous Populations Worldwide
Of all the countries included in the report, China has the highest number of Indigenous, with an estimated population of 125.3 million. It's worth noting that the Chinese government does not officially acknowledge the existence of Indigenous peoples.
Overall, the 'Ancestral Native Americans' descended from the admixture of an Ancient East Asian lineage contributing between 56–68% ancestry, and a Paleolithic Siberian population known as Ancient North Eurasians, contributing around 32–44% ancestry.
How did colonization affect indigenous people? ›
Over time, Indigenous peoples were banned from speaking their languages or practicing their cultural traditions, religions and rituals. In some cases, children were removed from their families and sent to boarding schools in an attempt to separate them permanently from their cultures.
How did the colonial rule affect the life of the natives of Latin America? ›Spanish and Portuguese colonists arrived in increasing numbers; they enslaved the native Indian population, which was soon decimated by ill treatment and disease, and then imported African slaves to replace them.
Are Mexicans considered Native Americans? ›So to give you a straight answer, yes – Mexican tribes are Native to the Americas, but the governments of the US and Mexico define their citizenry according to their country of residence.
What is the indigenous religion of Latin America? ›Indigenous creeds and rituals are still practiced in countries with large percentages of Amerindians, such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Mexico, and Peru. Various Afro-Latin American traditions such as Santería, Candomblé, Umbanda, Macumba, and tribal-voodoo religions are also practiced, mainly in Cuba, Brazil, and Haiti.
What do Brazilians call Indians? ›Indians, Amerindians
The continuous use of the word, even by the Indians themselves, has made it a synonym of an Indigenous person in Brazil. Because of the similitude among Indians from North, Central and South America, there are those who prefer to call all of them Amerindians.
Most important problems faced by Latin America according to opinion leaders and journalists in 2022
| Characteristic | Share of respondents |
|---|---|
| Inflation and economic stability | 56% |
| Fight against insecurity/crime/drug trafficking | 49% |
| Fight against corruption | 41% |
| Inequality reduction | 25% |
Jul 5, 2024
Final answer: The new nations of Latin America struggled with economic disparity, social inequality, and political instability post-independence. This was marked by the exploitation and economic imbalance between the rich and the poor, restrictive voting rights, and power being in the hands of local military leaders.
What was one common problem for the newly independent Latin American nations? ›The newly independent Latin American nations faced economic instability, and they turned to European lenders for loans and investments for industrialization and urbanization. Most Latin American nations exported raw materials to Europe and imported manufactured goods from Europe.
What was a major problem for many Latin American countries after independence? ›One of the most pressing and also most enduring problems that leaders of Latin American nations faced in the decades after independence was establishing the legitimacy of their new governments. In this regard the break with the colonial system proved traumatic.